Common Risk Factors Associated with Dyslexia
If the following behaviors are unexpected for an individual’s age, educational level, or cognitive abilities, they may be risk factors associated with dyslexia. A student with dyslexia usually exhibits several of these behaviors that persist over time and interfere with his/her learning. A family history of dyslexia may be present; in fact, recent studies reveal that the whole spectrum of reading disabilities is strongly determined by genetic predispositions (inherited aptitudes) (Olson, Keenan, Byrne, & Samuelsson, 2014).
Preschool
Delay in learning to talk
Difficulty with rhyming
Difficulty pronouncing words (e.g., “pusgetti” for “spaghetti,” “mawn lower” for “lawn mower”)
Poor auditory memory for nursery rhymes and chants
Difficulty in adding new vocabulary words
Inability to recall the right word (word retrieval)
Trouble learning and naming letters and numbers and remembering the letters in his/ her name
Aversion to print (e.g., doesn’t enjoy following along if book is read aloud)
Kindergarten and First Grade
Difficulty breaking words into smaller parts (syllables) (e.g., “baseball” can be pulled apart into “base” “ ball” or “napkin” can be pulled apart into “nap” “kin”)
Difficulty identifying and manipulating sounds in syllables (e.g., “man” sounded out as /m/ /a/ /n/)
Difficulty remembering the names of letters and recalling their corresponding sounds
Difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation)
Difficulty spelling words the way they sound (phonetically) or remembering letter sequences in very common words seen often in print ( g., “sed” for “said”)
Second Grade and Third Grade
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
Difficulty recognizing common sight words (e.g., “to,” “said,” “been”)
Difficulty decoding single words
Difficulty recalling the correct sounds for letters and letter patterns in reading
Difficulty connecting speech sounds with appropriate letter or letter combinations and omitting letters in words for spelling (e.g., “after” spelled “eftr”)
Difficulty reading fluently (e.g., slow, inaccurate, and/or without expression)
Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words in sentences using knowledge of phonics
Reliance on picture clues, story theme, or guessing at words
Difficulty with written expression
Fourth Grade through Sixth Grade
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
Difficulty reading aloud (e.g., fear of reading aloud in front of classmates)
Avoidance of reading (e.g., particularly for pleasure)
Acquisition of less vocabulary due to reduced independent reading
Use of less complicated words in writing that are easier to spell than more appropriate words (e.g., “big” instead of “enormous”)
Reliance on listening rather than reading for comprehension
Middle School and High School
Many of the previously described behaviors remain problematic along with the following:
Difficulty with the volume of reading and written work
Frustration with the amount of time required and energy expended for reading
Difficulty with written assignments
Tendency to avoid reading (particularly for pleasure)
Difficulty learning a foreign language
Post-secondary
Some students will not be identified prior to entering college as having dyslexia. The early years of reading difficulties evolve into slow, labored reading fluency. Many students will experience extreme frustration and fatigue due to the increasing demands of reading as the result of dyslexia. In making a diagnosis for dyslexia, a student’s reading history, familial/genetic predisposition, and assessment history are critical. Many of the previously described behaviors may remain problematic along with the following:
Difficulty pronouncing names of people and places or parts of words
Difficulty remembering names of people and places
Difficulty with word retrieval
Difficulty with spoken vocabulary
Difficulty completing the reading demands for multiple course requirements
Difficulty with note-taking
Difficulty with written production
Difficulty remembering sequences (e.g., mathematical and/or scientific formulas)
Since dyslexia is a neurological, language-based disability that persists over time and interferes with an individual’s learning, it is critical that identification and intervention occur as early as possible.